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Japanese Aesthetics

  • JAPANESE PHOTOGRAPHS
  • OTHER PHOTOGRAPHS
  • Aesthetic Issues
  • BOOKS ON JAPAN
  • About Us
  • Contact Us

About This Site

This site is about how Japanese aesthetic values are expressed in architecture, gardens, folk arts and crafts, everyday life and other areas that lie outside the scope of most museums. We hope this will provide a useful resource for those interested in Japanese culture. There are also galleries of art photos taken by David Young in places other than Japan (see Other Photographs).

CLICK ON THE COPYRIGHTED IMAGES BELOW TO OPEN GALLERIES OF PHOTOGRAPHS OF JAPAN TAKEN BY THE SITE AUTHORS OVER A NUMBER OF YEARS. 

See the menu at the top right of this page for a discussion of key topics (AESTHETIC ISSUES).

Temples

Buddhism came to Japan from Korea in the middle of the 6th century CE, bringing with it Continental civilization and a writing system. One of the first capitals, Heijo-kyo (present-day Nara), became the headquarters of the major Buddhist denominations of the time, most of which no longer exist apart from their Nara prototypes. These early temples were Chinese in style with vermillion-colored buildings, massive tiled roofs, and  tiled walls surrounding a highly symmetrical layout.

The Heian Period (794-1185) saw the capital moved from Heijo-kyo to Heian-kyo (present-day Kyoto). During this long period, new forms of Buddhism were introduced: the esoteric denominations (Tendai and Shingon) and various sects of Pure Land Buddhism.

Over time many newly-constructed temples adopted more traditional aesthetic values, abandoning a symmetrical layout, adopting natural, unpainted materials, and even moving from cities to the mountains.

Beginning in the Kamakura Period (1185-1333) a new form of Buddhism, Zen, was introduced from the Continent. Zen appealed to the warrior class of Japan because of its emphasis upon discipline of mind and body. Zen reached its aesthetic culmination during the Muromachi Period (1333-1573) in Kyoto.

  EARLY TEMPLES OF THE ASUKA (538-645), HAKUHO (645-710) AND NARA (710-794) PERIODS

EARLY TEMPLES OF THE ASUKA (538-645), HAKUHO (645-710) AND NARA (710-794) PERIODS

  1-1  Built in 588 as Hokoji; moved to Nara in 718 under the name Gangoji

1-1 Built in 588 as Hokoji; moved to Nara in 718 under the name Gangoji

1-2  Oldest Shakamuni image in Japan; housed in Gangoji
1-2 Oldest Shakamuni image in Japan; housed in Gangoji
1-3  Horyuji near Nara. Built in 603; rebuilt around 711 after a fire. Oldest wooden buildings in the world
1-3 Horyuji near Nara. Built in 603; rebuilt around 711 after a fire. Oldest wooden buildings in the world
1-4  Horyuji. New building in vermillion. Buildings are not repainted when the colour wears off.
1-4 Horyuji. New building in vermillion. Buildings are not repainted when the colour wears off.
1-5  Reconstructed main hall of Yakushiji in Nara. Founded in 680
1-5 Reconstructed main hall of Yakushiji in Nara. Founded in 680
1-6  Original pagoda at Yakushiji
1-6 Original pagoda at Yakushiji
1-7  Kofukuji in Nara. Founded in 710
1-7 Kofukuji in Nara. Founded in 710
1-8  Shin-Yakushiji in Nara. Founded in 747
1-8 Shin-Yakushiji in Nara. Founded in 747
1-9  Hokkeji in Nara. Founded in 749
1-9 Hokkeji in Nara. Founded in 749
1-10  Todaiji in Nara. Founded in 752 as the head of the provincial temple system
1-10 Todaiji in Nara. Founded in 752 as the head of the provincial temple system
1-11  Daibutsu in Todaiji
1-11 Daibutsu in Todaiji
1-12  Toshodaiji in Nara. Founded in 759
1-12 Toshodaiji in Nara. Founded in 759
1-13  Ishiyamadera in Otsu. Founded in 762
1-13 Ishiyamadera in Otsu. Founded in 762
1-14  Akishinodera in Nara. Founded in 780
1-14 Akishinodera in Nara. Founded in 780
  ESOTERIC AND PURE LAND TEMPLES OF THE HEIAN PERIOD (794-1185)

ESOTERIC AND PURE LAND TEMPLES OF THE HEIAN PERIOD (794-1185)

  1-15  Main hall of the Western Precinct of Enryakuji on Mt. Hie near Kyoto. This Tendai complex was founded in 788. The building shown here, the Shakado, was moved to Mt. Hie in 1595

1-15 Main hall of the Western Precinct of Enryakuji on Mt. Hie near Kyoto. This Tendai complex was founded in 788. The building shown here, the Shakado, was moved to Mt. Hie in 1595

  1-16  Shiki Ko-do at Enryakuji.

1-16 Shiki Ko-do at Enryakuji.

  1-17  Toji (East Temple) was built to guard the East end of the city when the capital was moved to Kyoto in 794. Founded in 796

1-17 Toji (East Temple) was built to guard the East end of the city when the capital was moved to Kyoto in 794. Founded in 796

  1-18  Muroji near Uda City. Founded in the late Nara Period, the temple, located in a forest, is now Shingon

1-18 Muroji near Uda City. Founded in the late Nara Period, the temple, located in a forest, is now Shingon

  1-19  Pagoda at Muroji

1-19 Pagoda at Muroji

  1-20  Sanzenin, Ohara near Kyoto. The Amida Hall shown here (Tendai) was built in 985 and rebuilt in 1148

1-20 Sanzenin, Ohara near Kyoto. The Amida Hall shown here (Tendai) was built in 985 and rebuilt in 1148

  1-21  Byodoin, Uji City, founded in 998. The Phoenix Hall (best example of a Paradise Hall) shown here was constructed in 1053. Today, Byodoin is a joint Tendai and Jodo (Pure Land) temple

1-21 Byodoin, Uji City, founded in 998. The Phoenix Hall (best example of a Paradise Hall) shown here was constructed in 1053. Today, Byodoin is a joint Tendai and Jodo (Pure Land) temple

  1-22  Main hall of Joruriji near Nara. Pure Land temple founded in 1047

1-22 Main hall of Joruriji near Nara. Pure Land temple founded in 1047

  1-23  Pagoda at Joruriji

1-23 Pagoda at Joruriji

  1-24  Main gate of Chionin, Kyoto. Jodo (Pure Land) temple founded in 1234

1-24 Main gate of Chionin, Kyoto. Jodo (Pure Land) temple founded in 1234

  1-25  Main hall of Chioninin

1-25 Main hall of Chioninin

  1-26  Sutra building at Chionin

1-26 Sutra building at Chionin

  1-27  Kongobuji, headquarters of Shingon on Mt. Koya. Founded 1593

1-27 Kongobuji, headquarters of Shingon on Mt. Koya. Founded 1593

  1-28  Entrance to Amida Hall, Nishi Honganji, Kyoto. Headquarters of Jodo Shinshu (True Pure Land), constructed in 1602

1-28 Entrance to Amida Hall, Nishi Honganji, Kyoto. Headquarters of Jodo Shinshu (True Pure Land), constructed in 1602

  1-29  Interior of Amida Hall at Nishi Honganji

1-29 Interior of Amida Hall at Nishi Honganji

  ZEN TEMPLES OF THE KAMAKURA (1185-1333) AND MUROMACHI (1333-1573) PERIODS

ZEN TEMPLES OF THE KAMAKURA (1185-1333) AND MUROMACHI (1333-1573) PERIODS

  1-30  Keninji, Kyoto, 1202. One of the original great five Zen temples of Kyoto

1-30 Keninji, Kyoto, 1202. One of the original great five Zen temples of Kyoto

  1-31  Interior of Keninji

1-31 Interior of Keninji

  1-32  Tofukuji in Kyoto. Founded in 1236. One of the great five Zen temples of Kyoto

1-32 Tofukuji in Kyoto. Founded in 1236. One of the great five Zen temples of Kyoto

  1-33  Eiheiji Monastery, founded by Eihei Dogen (one of Japan's greatest thinkers) in 1244. Eiheiji is one of the two head temples of Soto Zen

1-33 Eiheiji Monastery, founded by Eihei Dogen (one of Japan's greatest thinkers) in 1244. Eiheiji is one of the two head temples of Soto Zen

  1-34  One of several gates at Eiheiji

1-34 One of several gates at Eiheiji

  1-35  Interior at Eiheiji

1-35 Interior at Eiheiji

  1-36  Tenryuji in Kyoto, 1345. One of the great five Zen temples of Kyoto.

1-36 Tenryuji in Kyoto, 1345. One of the great five Zen temples of Kyoto.

  1-37  Kinkakuji (Temple of the Golden Pavilion) in Kyoto. Built in 1397; reconstructed in 1955

1-37 Kinkakuji (Temple of the Golden Pavilion) in Kyoto. Built in 1397; reconstructed in 1955

  1-38  Interior at Kinkakuji

1-38 Interior at Kinkakuji

  1-39  Ginkakuji (Temple of the Silver Pavilion) in Kyoto. Founded in 1490

1-39 Ginkakuji (Temple of the Silver Pavilion) in Kyoto. Founded in 1490

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Shrines

Shinto shrines have a venerable history in Japan, dating back to prehistoric times. These pre-Buddhist shrines were constructed of natural materials (unpainted wood with roofs of thatch or bark) and set in natural surroundings. 

With the coming of Buddhism in the mid-sixth century, Shinto shrines began to change in the direction of Continental aesthetic values, introducing symmetrical layouts, tiled roofs, painted wood, and plastered, tiled walls.

Some shrines, however, notably those at Izumo (the oldest shrine) and Ise (the imperial shrines) have retained their original character, often being rebuilt at regular intervals over the centuries. 

  PRE-BUDDHIST SHINTO SHRINES

PRE-BUDDHIST SHINTO SHRINES

  2-1  Reconstruction of a Yayoi Period (300 BCE or earlier - 300 CE) village at the Osaka Prefectural Museum of Yayoi Culture. The building with the light front may have been an early shrine.

2-1 Reconstruction of a Yayoi Period (300 BCE or earlier - 300 CE) village at the Osaka Prefectural Museum of Yayoi Culture. The building with the light front may have been an early shrine.

  2-2  Izumo Shrine, the oldest in Japan

2-2 Izumo Shrine, the oldest in Japan

  2-3  Izumo Shrine is periodically reconstructed, as shown in this 2012 photograph

2-3 Izumo Shrine is periodically reconstructed, as shown in this 2012 photograph

  2-4  Main compound at Ise Jingu, the imperial shrines dating back to prehistoric times. Beginning in the 7th century, the shrine has been rebuilt every 20 years, a major effort involving 65 buildings and 16,000 artifacts.

2-4 Main compound at Ise Jingu, the imperial shrines dating back to prehistoric times. Beginning in the 7th century, the shrine has been rebuilt every 20 years, a major effort involving 65 buildings and 16,000 artifacts.

  2-5  Subsidiary building at Ise. The small structure on the right indicates where the replacement for the shrine on the left will be reconstructed after 20 years.

2-5 Subsidiary building at Ise. The small structure on the right indicates where the replacement for the shrine on the left will be reconstructed after 20 years.

  2-6  Subsidiary building at Ise, located in a forest

2-6 Subsidiary building at Ise, located in a forest

  2-7  Interior of a shrine in Takahiho, Kyushu, where the grandson of the sun goddess descended to earth. The mirror in a Shinto shrine is one of the three symbols of divine authority, the other two being the sword and the jewel.

2-7 Interior of a shrine in Takahiho, Kyushu, where the grandson of the sun goddess descended to earth. The mirror in a Shinto shrine is one of the three symbols of divine authority, the other two being the sword and the jewel.

  POST-BUDDHIST SHRINES

POST-BUDDHIST SHRINES

  2-8  Main sanctuary at Itsukushima Shrine on Miyajima Island, dating to the late 6th century

2-8 Main sanctuary at Itsukushima Shrine on Miyajima Island, dating to the late 6th century

  2-9  Y asaka Shrine in Kyoto, founded in 656

2-9 Yasaka Shrine in Kyoto, founded in 656

  2-10  Kamigamo Shrine in Kyoto, dedicated to the kami of thunder. Founded in 678

2-10 Kamigamo Shrine in Kyoto, dedicated to the kami of thunder. Founded in 678

  2-11  Torii (gates) at Fushimi Inari-taisha in Kyoto, dedicated to the fox kami. Established in 711

2-11 Torii (gates) at Fushimi Inari-taisha in Kyoto, dedicated to the fox kami. Established in 711

  2-12  Shinto priest officiating at a Shinto ceremony

2-12 Shinto priest officiating at a Shinto ceremony

  2-13  Tanzan Shrine in Sakurai, originating in early Shinto-Buddhist syncretism. Designated as a purely Shinto shrine in 1868.

2-13 Tanzan Shrine in Sakurai, originating in early Shinto-Buddhist syncretism. Designated as a purely Shinto shrine in 1868.

  2-14  Yomeimon Gate at Toshogu, Nikko, where the ashes of Tokugawa Ieyaseu are enshrined.

2-14 Yomeimon Gate at Toshogu, Nikko, where the ashes of Tokugawa Ieyaseu are enshrined.

  2-15  Famous three monkeys at the Sacred Stables, Toshogu Shrine

2-15 Famous three monkeys at the Sacred Stables, Toshogu Shrine

  2-16  Kashihara Jingu, Kashihara. Constructed in 1889 to enshrine the legendary first emperor, Jimmu, and consort. Built in the style of a palace

2-16 Kashihara Jingu, Kashihara. Constructed in 1889 to enshrine the legendary first emperor, Jimmu, and consort. Built in the style of a palace

2-17  Kasuga Shrine, Nara
2-17 Kasuga Shrine, Nara

Palaces

Early palace architecture in Heijo-kyo (present-day Nara) and Heian-kyo (present-day Kyoto) followed the same basic pattern as early Chinese style Buddhist temples with monumental buildings that were brightly-painted, tiled, and set in large gravelled courtyards surrounded by roofed walls and impressive entrances. A good example of this early style is Heian Shrine in Kyoto, which is a two-thirds size reconstruction of the Great Hall of State (Daigokuden) of the Heian palace constructed on the original palace grounds in 1072.

Like Buddhist temples, many of which moved in the direction of indigenous aesthetic values over time, later palaces in Kyoto created living areas for the emperor, his consort, and children that were austere, unpainted buildings shingled with Cypress bark--in contrast to courtyard of the Hall of State, which retained its Chinese style. Living quarters were influenced by earlier Shinden mansions of the nobility that featured shingled buildings constructed around a pond and enclosed by a tiled wall. 

In addition to the imperial palace (Kyoto Gosho), there were more informal palaces belonging to members of the imperial family, such as the Edo Period Katsura Detached Palace in Kyoto, a traditional style complex set in a beautiful stroll garden.

 

  3-1  Heijogu, the central part of the imperial palace in Heijokyo (present day Nara). Model at the Nara Bunkazai Kenkyujo in Nara

3-1 Heijogu, the central part of the imperial palace in Heijokyo (present day Nara). Model at the Nara Bunkazai Kenkyujo in Nara

  3-2  Reconstruction of part of the emperor's living quarters (Dairi), in the Shinden style, at Heijokyo palace in Nara.

3-2 Reconstruction of part of the emperor's living quarters (Dairi), in the Shinden style, at Heijokyo palace in Nara.

  3-3  The ancient Shosoin, former repository of the belongings of the Emperor Shomu (724-749), who ruled during the Nara Period.

3-3 The ancient Shosoin, former repository of the belongings of the Emperor Shomu (724-749), who ruled during the Nara Period.

  3-4  Heian Shrine in Kyoto is a two-thirds size reproduction of the original palace in Heiankyo (present day Kyoto).

3-4 Heian Shrine in Kyoto is a two-thirds size reproduction of the original palace in Heiankyo (present day Kyoto).

  3-5  Shishinden, the main building in the imperial palace where important state ceremonies were held. Constructed in the Momoyama Period (1573-1600), it is now at Ninnaji in Kyoto.

3-5 Shishinden, the main building in the imperial palace where important state ceremonies were held. Constructed in the Momoyama Period (1573-1600), it is now at Ninnaji in Kyoto.

  3-6  View of the current Shishinden through a gate at the imperial palace (Gosho) in Kyoto

3-6 View of the current Shishinden through a gate at the imperial palace (Gosho) in Kyoto

  3-7  View through the west entrance to the courtyard of the Shishinden

3-7 View through the west entrance to the courtyard of the Shishinden

  3-8  The Seiryoden, the private living quarters of the emperor at the Kyoto Gosho

3-8 The Seiryoden, the private living quarters of the emperor at the Kyoto Gosho

  3-9  East veranda of the Seiryoden

3-9 East veranda of the Seiryoden

  3-10  Painted sliding doors at the Kyoto imperial palace (Gosho)

3-10 Painted sliding doors at the Kyoto imperial palace (Gosho)

  3-11  Katsura Rikyu Detached Palace in Kyoto, belonging to the imperial household

3-11 Katsura Rikyu Detached Palace in Kyoto, belonging to the imperial household

  3-12  Tayasumon Gate in Kitanomaru Park, Tokyo is an entrance to the Tokyo imperial palace, originally the castle of the Tokugawa shoguns.

3-12 Tayasumon Gate in Kitanomaru Park, Tokyo is an entrance to the Tokyo imperial palace, originally the castle of the Tokugawa shoguns.

3-13  Entrance to Nijo Castle Palace, Kyoto
3-13 Entrance to Nijo Castle Palace, Kyoto

Dwellings and Inns

In the Jomon Period (10,000-300 BCE), people lived in pit houses. In the following Yayoi Period (300 BCE-300 CE) new cultural influences arrived from Korea to introduce wet rice agriculture, which required storing grain in raised structures to protect them from water and rats.

In following periods, farmhouses adopted both practices. The kitchen and other work areas were situated on a packed dirt floor, whereas the living room and other peripheral rooms were constructed on a raised floor. The basic structure was post and beam with a large thatched roof. After the introduction of continental influence in the 6th century, thatch was often replaced with tiles.

There is a great deal of variation in farmhouses (minka) in Japan. Gassho style farmhouses have steep roofs suitable for areas with snow; magariya are L-shape houses of northeastern Japan that include a living space for the family as well as a stable for animals. Another northern style is the Kabutoyana (samurai helmet) roof that allows windows on the upper floors, an important consideration in the winter when windows on the ground floor are covered with snow.

On the southern island of Kyushu, U-shaped Kudo style houses were constructed "back to the wind" to withstand typhoons. There are many other basic shapes and roof ridge styles found in rural areas. 

In general, farmhouses were large enough to accommodate multiple generations --in some cases as much as thirty people or more. With their high ceilings and uninsulated walls, they were crafty and difficult to heat in the winter. Some farmhouses had an open hearth in the main living area, around which family members would sit for tea in the evenings. The interior space could be divided into smaller areas by sliding doors.

Urban merchant houses known as machiya were similar in construction with both a raised living area and a working area on a dirt floor. Machiya were long homes with narrow street frontage, usually containing one or more courtyard gardens. Two or three stories high, the front of the house served as retail space, with the back providing living space. 

In many cases, traditional houses, particularly in urban areas, consisted of rooms that look over a long deck that runs partway around the house. One steps from the tatami mats on the interior of the house to the wooden deck, and then down into the garden. The deck is separated from the garden by sliding doors: wood, glass, screen, and paper, that can be opened and closed depending upon the weather. Sometimes, a toilet is situated at one end of the deck and the bath is situated at the other end --keeping the two opposite bodily functions as far apart as possible. Important rooms have recessed alcoves (tokonoma) for displaying art objects.

Traditional inns are similar in structure, with a reception area, tatami mat guest rooms, bath and toilet areas, kitchen and a garden. Traditionally, meals are served in the guest rooms on low tables. After dinner, the table is moved to one side and bedding is removed from closets and laid out on the tatami mats. The bath usually consists of separate areas for males and females and may have only small wood or ceramic tubs where one soaks after washing thoroughly outside the tub. The hot water in some inns is supplied by natural hot springs, in which case the bathing area may consist of both large indoor and outdoor pools. 

Traditional homes and inns have a foyer (genkan) where shoes are left before stepping up onto the tatami mat area. There are separate slippers for wooden decks, toilets, bath, and garden.

Today, traditional domestic architecture is often replaced with Western style wood frame structures with insulated walls. Such buildings are less costly to build and easier to heat. Unlike traditional houses that had very little furniture, modern Western style homes employ Western style furniture such as tables, chairs, and beds.

  4-1  Reconstructed Jomon Period (10,000-300 BCE) pit dwelling at Ikegami-sone-iseki

4-1 Reconstructed Jomon Period (10,000-300 BCE) pit dwelling at Ikegami-sone-iseki

  4-2  Interior of a reconstructed Jomon pit dwelling

4-2 Interior of a reconstructed Jomon pit dwelling

  4-3  Ainu house in Biratori, Hokkaido, constructed primarily of reeds

4-3 Ainu house in Biratori, Hokkaido, constructed primarily of reeds

  4-4  Ogimachi Village, Honshu, with a number of gassho (hands in prayer) style houses

4-4 Ogimachi Village, Honshu, with a number of gassho (hands in prayer) style houses

  4-5  A gassho style house is a multi-story structure capable of housing several generations of an extended family

4-5 A gassho style house is a multi-story structure capable of housing several generations of an extended family

  4-6  Interior roof structure of a gasho style house

4-6 Interior roof structure of a gasho style house

  4-7  Gasho style houses have interior hearths with an overhanging spark protector

4-7 Gasho style houses have interior hearths with an overhanging spark protector

  4-8  Owner making morning tea at a Gasho style house

4-8 Owner making morning tea at a Gasho style house

  4-9  House and storehouse (jura) from Totsukawa Village, now at the Open-Air Museum of Old Japanese Farmhouses in Toyonaka City

4-9 House and storehouse (jura) from Totsukawa Village, now at the Open-Air Museum of Old Japanese Farmhouses in Toyonaka City

  4-10  Farm house from Akiyama, now ay the Open-Air Museum of Old Japanese Farmouses in Toyonaka City

4-10 Farm house from Akiyama, now ay the Open-Air Museum of Old Japanese Farmouses in Toyonaka City

  4-11  Farmhouse from Settsu Nose, now ay the Open-Air Museum of Old Japanese Farmouses in Toyonaka City

4-11 Farmhouse from Settsu Nose, now ay the Open-Air Museum of Old Japanese Farmouses in Toyonaka City

  4-12  Interior of a farmhouse from Shiba, now ay the Open-Air Museum of Old Japanese Farmouses in Toyonaka City

4-12 Interior of a farmhouse from Shiba, now ay the Open-Air Museum of Old Japanese Farmouses in Toyonaka City

  4-13  Former Yamashita residence from Fukui,   now ay the Open-Air Museum of Old Japanese Farmouses in Toyonaka City

4-13 Former Yamashita residence from Fukui, now ay the Open-Air Museum of Old Japanese Farmouses in Toyonaka City

  4-14  Yoshimura House in Habikino Cityu, built around 1615 is one of the oldest extant farmhouses in Japan. It is the first farmhouse to be designated a National Treasure.

4-14 Yoshimura House in Habikino Cityu, built around 1615 is one of the oldest extant farmhouses in Japan. It is the first farmhouse to be designated a National Treasure.

  4-15  Interior of the Yoshimura House

4-15 Interior of the Yoshimura House

  4-16   Yoshijima House, Takayama, is a good example of an merchant's house that combines domestic and business functions.

4-16 Yoshijima House, Takayama, is a good example of an merchant's house that combines domestic and business functions.

  4-17  Interior of the Yoshijima House

4-17 Interior of the Yoshijima House

  4-18  Toilet at one end of the deck at the Yoshijima House

4-18 Toilet at one end of the deck at the Yoshijima House

  4-19  Living area of the Yoshijima House

4-19 Living area of the Yoshijima House

  4-20  Kitchen of the Yoshijima House

4-20 Kitchen of the Yoshijima House

  4-21  Large farmhouse surrounded by rice paddies

4-21 Large farmhouse surrounded by rice paddies

  4-22  Natsume Soseki's house, now at Meiji Mura

4-22 Natsume Soseki's house, now at Meiji Mura

  4-23  Samurai residential area in the city of Hagi

4-23 Samurai residential area in the city of Hagi

  4-24  Typical walled urban residence

4-24 Typical walled urban residence

  4-25  Recessed alcove (tokonoma) for displaying art objects

4-25 Recessed alcove (tokonoma) for displaying art objects

  4-26  Entrance (genkan) to a modern urban residence in traditional style

4-26 Entrance (genkan) to a modern urban residence in traditional style

  4-27  Living area of the same house

4-27 Living area of the same house

  4-28  Tanabe Ryokan (traditional inn), Takayama

4-28 Tanabe Ryokan (traditional inn), Takayama

  4-29  Lobby of the Tanabe Ryokan, Takayama

4-29 Lobby of the Tanabe Ryokan, Takayama

  4-30  Typical interior of a ryokan room

4-30 Typical interior of a ryokan room

4-31  Hanatsubaki Inn, Obama
4-31 Hanatsubaki Inn, Obama
4-32  Hanatsubaki Inn, Obama
4-32 Hanatsubaki Inn, Obama
4-33  Meal at a Japanese inn
4-33 Meal at a Japanese inn
4-34  Lobby of Hanatsubaki Inn, Obama
4-34 Lobby of Hanatsubaki Inn, Obama
  4-35  Area where clothes are left adjacent to the hot bath of a ryokan

4-35 Area where clothes are left adjacent to the hot bath of a ryokan

  4-36  Large indoor bath at a hot spring ryokan

4-36 Large indoor bath at a hot spring ryokan

  4-37  Outdoor hot pool at a hot spring resort

4-37 Outdoor hot pool at a hot spring resort

  4-38  Lobby of a large, modern hot spring resort hotel

4-38 Lobby of a large, modern hot spring resort hotel

Castles and Castle Towns

Castles

Japanese castles are interesting from an architectural point of view. They are also important symbols because they are associated with internal warfare, which has been typical of much of Japanese history.

The earliest fortifications in Japan were probably constructed in the Yayoi Period (300 BCE-300 CE). In the Early Tomb Mound Period (300-552 CE) earth and wooden fortresses of a more enduring nature were built throughout Japan by the Yamato Clan to defend against native groups such as the Emishi and Ainu.

Beginning in the Heian Period (794-1185) attention shifted from defines of the Nation from indigenous and foreign invaders to include the necessity for clans to defend their territories against each other. Heian Period fortifications consisted of mountain stockades made of wood, as well as samurai houses surrounded by a moat and palisades.

Clan warfare increased during the Period of Decentralized Feudalism, resulting in the proliferation of clan castles. Most of these castles from the early period of Decentralized Feudalism were located on mountains or hills and were rather primitive and impermanent, providing temporary refuge in time of war. Warlords normally lived in a fortified home in a more convenient location. Over the course of the Period of Decentralized Feudalism early mountain-top castles developed into permanent residences with elaborate exteriors and luxurious interiors.

The Momoyama Period (1573-1600) when Japan was unified under three great successive military leaders (Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Oda Nobunaga, and Ieyasu Tokugawa), saw a new style of castle that relied upon manmade defences rather than a remote mountain environment. There were two types: (1) flatland castles often led to the growth of castle towns that served as administrative censers; (2) flatland-mountain castles were built on a hill in the center of the lord’s domain.

During the following Edo Period (1600-1868), when Japan was unified under a Shogun and relative peaceful, the Shogun limited each clan to one castle. Thus many castles had to be destroyed. The Meiji Period (1868-1912), when Japan forcefully pursued westernization, saw the destruction of many castles, which were viewed as remnants of feudal society. More were lost to neglect and World War II. Today, only twelve original castles survive, though others have been reconstructed.

Castle Towns

A good example of a castle town is Kanezawa, an administrative, commercial and cultural center during the feudal period. Situated on the Japan Sea side, Kanazawa was the castle town of the Maeda clan and Japan's fourth largest city in the Edo Period. Fortunately, Kanazawa was spared from bombing during World War II. In addition to castle remains, the city has several main areas of historical interest: the old samurai area, the geisha district, the temple district, and one of Japan's three most important gardens, Kenrokuen.

  CASTLES

CASTLES

  5-1  Inuyama Castle, completed in 1440, is the oldest extant castle in Japan and one of four castles awarded the status of National Treasure.

5-1 Inuyama Castle, completed in 1440, is the oldest extant castle in Japan and one of four castles awarded the status of National Treasure.

  5-2  Himeji Castle, completed in 1561, is considered to be the most beautiful castle in Japan.

5-2 Himeji Castle, completed in 1561, is considered to be the most beautiful castle in Japan.

  5-3  Partially reconstructed Kanazawa Castled, founded in 1580

5-3 Partially reconstructed Kanazawa Castled, founded in 1580

  5-4  Detail of the entrance to the Kanazawa castle

5-4 Detail of the entrance to the Kanazawa castle

  5-5  Matsumoto Castle, completed in 1593-94 is one of the 12 remaining original castles in Japan and one of four castles that have been awarded the status of National Treasure.

5-5 Matsumoto Castle, completed in 1593-94 is one of the 12 remaining original castles in Japan and one of four castles that have been awarded the status of National Treasure.

  5-6  Osaka Castle, completed in 1597, was the headquarters of the great military warlord Hideyoshi.

5-6 Osaka Castle, completed in 1597, was the headquarters of the great military warlord Hideyoshi.

  5-7  Kumamoto Castle in Kyushu. Originally constructed in 1467, it burned in 1877 and has been rebuilt.

5-7 Kumamoto Castle in Kyushu. Originally constructed in 1467, it burned in 1877 and has been rebuilt.

  5-8  Hirosaki Castle, constructed in 1611

5-8 Hirosaki Castle, constructed in 1611

  5-9  Hikone Castle, completed in 1622, is one of the oldest original castles in Japan. It was saved from destruction by the Emperor Meiji and is a national treasure.

5-9 Hikone Castle, completed in 1622, is one of the oldest original castles in Japan. It was saved from destruction by the Emperor Meiji and is a national treasure.

  KANAZAWA, A CASTLE TOWN

KANAZAWA, A CASTLE TOWN

  5-10  Samurai area of Kanazawa

5-10 Samurai area of Kanazawa

  5-11  Detail from a samurai house

5-11 Detail from a samurai house

  5-12  Entrance to a "tea house" in the geisha district of Kanazawa

5-12 Entrance to a "tea house" in the geisha district of Kanazawa

  5-13  Colorful interior of the "tea house"

5-13 Colorful interior of the "tea house"

  5-14  Structure in the temple area of Kanazawa

5-14 Structure in the temple area of Kanazawa

  5-15  A small courtyard garden ( tsubo ) at the Edo Period Normura residence in Kanazawa

5-15 A small courtyard garden (tsubo) at the Edo Period Normura residence in Kanazawa

  5-16  Kenrokuen Garden in Kanazawa, one of the three most famous gardens in Japan

5-16 Kenrokuen Garden in Kanazawa, one of the three most famous gardens in Japan

  5-17  Seisonkaku Villa, constructed in Kenrokuen Garden in 1863 by the 13th Maeda daimyo for his mother

5-17 Seisonkaku Villa, constructed in Kenrokuen Garden in 1863 by the 13th Maeda daimyo for his mother

Meiji and Modern Buildings

The Meiji Restoration of 1868 returned the Emperor to power, abolished feudalism, and opened Japan to Western trade and cultural influences, including architecture. New styles, techniques and materials were adopted from the West, resulting in an interesting blend of Western and Japanese features. For example, some buildings, such as residences, inns, shops and neighbourhood shrines, remained traditional in basic structure but adopted synthetic siding and asphalt shingles. Other buildings, such as stores and restaurants, remained traditional in appearance but adopted Western structural elements such as 2x4 framing instead of customary post and beam.

In the early Meiji Period many government buildings private businesses, and factories were constructed from stone and brick. Because Japanese lacked experience with these materials, such buildings were usually designed and built by foreign architects. Eventually Japanese carpenters experimented on their own, combining Western designs with traditional elements, resulting in eclectic buildings with a certain amount of charm.

In the early 1880s there was a reaction against rapid Westernization and a growing nationalism that saw a return to the use of massive tiled roofs and Japanese decorative motifs being added to Western style facades.

Although many Meiji buildings have been lost to fire, earthquake, and war, a number of remaining structures have been moved to Meiji Mura, near Nagoya, a large open air museum where some of the best of Meiji architecture can be seen.

Today, Japan has a complex mix of poor quality post-war buildings, traditional architecture, and modern buildings, especially in cities such as Tokyo, that are among the most futuristic in the world. Though there was long a ban on building tall buildings because of the danger of earthquakes, new techniques have allowed buildings to climb higher and higher --a trend encouraged by the high price of land in urban areas.

 

  MEIJI PERIOD BUILDINGS

MEIJI PERIOD BUILDINGS

  6-1  1902 Prefectural Exhibition Hall for Nara products, City of Nara

6-1 1902 Prefectural Exhibition Hall for Nara products, City of Nara

  6-2  The former Kaichi school, constructed in 1873, one of the oldest public schools in Japan

6-2 The former Kaichi school, constructed in 1873, one of the oldest public schools in Japan

  6-3  Ishikawa Prefectural Noh Theatre, Kanezawa

6-3 Ishikawa Prefectural Noh Theatre, Kanezawa

  6-4  Kitasato Institute, 1915, in Meiji Mura

6-4 Kitasato Institute, 1915, in Meiji Mura

  6-5  Former town office, 1918, in Kurashiki City

6-5 Former town office, 1918, in Kurashiki City

  6-6  Marunouchi entrance to the Tokyo train station, 1914

6-6 Marunouchi entrance to the Tokyo train station, 1914

6-7  Old Japan Railways station, Nara
6-7 Old Japan Railways station, Nara
  MODERN BUILDINGS

MODERN BUILDINGS

  6-8   Ebisu Neonart Building, Tokyo

6-8 Ebisu Neonart Building, Tokyo

  6-9  Tokyo International Forum, Tokyo

6-9 Tokyo International Forum, Tokyo

  6-10  City Hall, Tokyo

6-10 City Hall, Tokyo

  6-11  Intex Building, Osaka

6-11 Intex Building, Osaka

  6-12  Edo-Tokyo Museum, Tokyo

6-12 Edo-Tokyo Museum, Tokyo

  6-13  Nippon Budokan (Japanese Martial Arts Hall), Tokyo

6-13 Nippon Budokan (Japanese Martial Arts Hall), Tokyo

6-14  Headquarters of Sukyo Mahikari in Takayama
6-14 Headquarters of Sukyo Mahikari in Takayama
6-15  Kyoto Station
6-15 Kyoto Station

Nara and Heian Period Gardens

The earliest gardens in Japan were simple pebbled plots on the beach or in the forest, created for honouring spirits known as kami. These pebbled areas were later used to indicate sacred space associated with Shinto shrines and ceremonial space in front of chiefs’ houses.

From the sixth through the eighth centuries CE, new influences arrived from the Continent, bringing, among many other things, writing and Buddhism, as well as two major garden traditions: (1) a Monumental Graveled Courtyard Tradition associated with imperial palaces and Buddhist temples and (2) a Villa Pond-Garden Tradition associated with aristocratic mansions. Both of these traditions were introduced to the area that developed the first major capital, Heijokyo now known as Nara. The Nara Period lasted from 710-794.

Despite their continental origins, the graveled courtyards of the imperial palace and the major temples of Nara are reminiscent of the graveled courtyards associated with prehistoric shrines and chiefs’ houses. The second continental garden tradition were aristocratic shinden villas set in an extensive garden organized around a pond.

In 710 the capital was moved from Heijokyo (Nara) to Heiankyo (Kyoto), which remained the capital for around a thousand years. Continental influences persisted from the Nara Period, with the continuation of graveled courtyards around the palace and major Buddhist temples. Despite the persistence of these continental influences there was a tendency, after Kyoto became the capital, to modify Chinese influences in accordance with indigenous standards of taste. For example, there was a tendency to blend the Monumental Graveled Courtyard Tradition and the Villa Pond-Garden Tradition.

This tendency was perhaps most marked in the temples of the esoteric denominations that came to Japan during the Heian Period: Shingon and Tendai. The most important surviving example of a Shingon temple and garden is Byodoin Temple at Uji, on the outskirts of Kyoto. Here, the temple was separated from a large lotus pond by a graveled area. In the middle of the pond was an island where religious ceremonies were conducted. Members of the Fujiwara family, regents to the Emperor in Kyoto, would sit on the other side of the pond gazing at the beautiful temple and imagining their rebirth in the Western Paradise. Such gardens were called Paradise Gardens.

Many Shingon and Tendai temples departed from the continental tradition of great Chinese-style urban complexes with tiled, painted buildings in a graveled courtyard and moved to the mountains, where buildings were arranged asymmetrically and were surrounded by more informal gardens. A good example is Sanzen-in, a Tendai temple at Otsu, near Kyoto.

 

  7-1  The earliest gardens in Japan were graveled area for the kami to land

7-1 The earliest gardens in Japan were graveled area for the kami to land

  7-2  Remains of an early imperial palace garden on the grounds of Nijo Castle, Kyoto

7-2 Remains of an early imperial palace garden on the grounds of Nijo Castle, Kyoto

  7-3  Garden at Heian Shrine in Kyoto, reminiscent of earlier Shinden style gardens with buildings situated around a central pond

7-3 Garden at Heian Shrine in Kyoto, reminiscent of earlier Shinden style gardens with buildings situated around a central pond

  7-4  Detail from the garden at Heian Shrine, Kyoto

7-4 Detail from the garden at Heian Shrine, Kyoto

  7-5  Paradise Garden pond at Byodoin Temple at Uji near Kyoto

7-5 Paradise Garden pond at Byodoin Temple at Uji near Kyoto

  7-6  Rock garden at the Shingon headquarters on Mt. Koya

7-6 Rock garden at the Shingon headquarters on Mt. Koya

  7-7  Garden at a subsidiary temple on Mt. Koya

7-7 Garden at a subsidiary temple on Mt. Koya

  7-8  Large pond garden at Daikakuji, a Shingon temple in Kyoto

7-8 Large pond garden at Daikakuji, a Shingon temple in Kyoto

  7-9  Pond garden at Daigoji, a Shingon temple in Kyoto

7-9 Pond garden at Daigoji, a Shingon temple in Kyoto

  7-10  Formal garden at Daisen-in, a Tendai temple at Ohara near Kyoto

7-10 Formal garden at Daisen-in, a Tendai temple at Ohara near Kyoto

  7-11  Informal garden at Daisen-in

7-11 Informal garden at Daisen-in

  7-12  Manshu-in, Kyoto, a Tendai monzeki temple where emperors frequently retired to the monastic life

7-12 Manshu-in, Kyoto, a Tendai monzeki temple where emperors frequently retired to the monastic life

Zen Gardens

In the Muromachi Period (1333-1573), a new school of Buddhism from China, Zen, continued the process, begun by the esoteric and Pure Land denominations in the Heian Period, of modifying existing villa compounds into temples with pond gardens, to which they added new froms of sacred graveled space.

A good example of an early Zen garden in Japan is that of Tenryuji in Kyoto, where a pond-style garden with rock formations representing the search for enlightenment were constructed adjacent to the temple. The Tenryuji garden was transitional between earlier pond gardens of the Heian Period and later karesansui (dry landscape) gardens, such as that of Ryoanji, perhaps the most famous Zen meditation-style garden in the world. Other Zen temples with karesansui gardens are Tofukuji and Ryogenin temples in Kyoto.

In karesansui gardens, rocks and gravel, sometimes supplemented with moss and other forms of vegetation, are used to suggest water and mountains in an attempt to translate bland ink landscape paintings into three-dimensional forms on a small scale.

A typical Zen idea is that the universe can be found in a grain of sand. Accordingly, karesansui gardens strive to convey the deeper meaning of life by reducingmaterials used to stones, gravel, and occasional vegetation. The stones stand for the eternal framework of the universe, and the gravel and vegetation symbolize the transience of the phenomenal world.

  8-1  Pond with rock formation symbolizing the quest for enlightenment at Tenryuji in Kyoto

8-1 Pond with rock formation symbolizing the quest for enlightenment at Tenryuji in Kyoto

  8-2  Garden in front of the Founder's Hall of Tofukuji in Kyoto

8-2 Garden in front of the Founder's Hall of Tofukuji in Kyoto

8-3  Tofukuji, Kyoto
8-3 Tofukuji, Kyoto
  8-4  Moss and cut stone checkerboard North Garden at Tofukuji in Kyoto

8-4 Moss and cut stone checkerboard North Garden at Tofukuji in Kyoto

  8-5  Dry landscape garden at Ginkakuji in Kyoto

8-5 Dry landscape garden at Ginkakuji in Kyoto

  8-6  Pond garden in front of the Togudo at Ginkakuji in Kyoto

8-6 Pond garden in front of the Togudo at Ginkakuji in Kyoto

  8-7  Famous dry landscape garden at Ryoanji in Kyoto

8-7 Famous dry landscape garden at Ryoanji in Kyoto

  8-8  The wash basin outside the teahouse at Ryoanji has four characters around a central character that serves as the container for the water. Together the five characters mean "I learn only to be content."

8-8 The wash basin outside the teahouse at Ryoanji has four characters around a central character that serves as the container for the water. Together the five characters mean "I learn only to be content."

  8-9  Rock formation depicting carp trying to ascend a waterfall (symbolizing the quest for enlightenment) at Kinkakuji in Kyoto

8-9 Rock formation depicting carp trying to ascend a waterfall (symbolizing the quest for enlightenment) at Kinkakuji in Kyoto

  8-10  Famous dry landscape garden at Daisenin, a sub-temple of Daitokuji in Kyoto

8-10 Famous dry landscape garden at Daisenin, a sub-temple of Daitokuji in Kyoto

  8-11  Ryugintei, the oldest garden at Ryogenin, a sub-temple of Daitokuji in Kyoto

8-11 Ryugintei, the oldest garden at Ryogenin, a sub-temple of Daitokuji in Kyoto

  8-12  One of the smallest Zen gardens in Japan, at Ryogenin in Kyoto

8-12 One of the smallest Zen gardens in Japan, at Ryogenin in Kyoto

8-13  Ryogenin, Kyoto
8-13 Ryogenin, Kyoto
  8-14  Trimmed hedge and gravel garden at Daichiji in Koka

8-14 Trimmed hedge and gravel garden at Daichiji in Koka

Tea Houses and Gardens

Tea drinking began in the Nara Period (710-794) when tea was imported from China to be used as a medicine. In the following Heian Period (794-1185), tea was incorporated into Buddhist ceremonies and tea drinking was popular at the court. 

In the Kamakura Period (1185-1333) the nobility indulged in tea games which involved trying to guess where the tea was grown. In the following Muromachi Period (1333-1573) tea games were reorganized into a public ceremony dominated by strict rules of etiquette. Eventually, tea drinking developed into a kind of religious ceremony in which elegant Chinese ware was replaced by simple Korean bowls and the tea room was made smaller, with a low doorway so that everyone, regardless of stature, had to stoop to enter.

A tea ceremony can be conducted in a special room in a private home, palace temple or castle; or it can be conducted in a building constructed especially for that purpose.

The most famous tea master was Sen-no-Rikyu (1521-1591) who favoured austerity, manifested in a simple building situated in a tranquil garden setting. When asked about the secret of the tea ceremony, Rikyu replied, "making it so it feels cooler in summer and warmer in winter, arranging charcoal so water boils easily and tea tastes good."

Aesthetic concepts associated with the tea ceremony include sabi (the patina that comes with age), wabi (things that are simple, natural and imperfect) and shibusa (refined restraint).

Sen-no-Rikyu was the personal tea master of the great military leader Hideyoshi, with whom he disagreed on many issues --especially Hideyoshi's obsession with ostentatiousness. Eventually, Rikyu was accused of plotting to poison his master in a tea ceremony and was ordered to commit ritual suicide. Rikyu's influence, however, continues to live on and to influence contemporary tea ceremony, tea houses, and tea gardens.

If there is a separate building for the tea ceremony, it is situated in a garden (roji) that is divided into two parts. The outer roji consists of the gate, a covered seat where guests wait to be invited to the teahouse,  and a privy. When the invitation comes, guests enter another gate into the inner roji, where they wash hands and mouth at a water basin. There is also a well and small dust pit symbolizing the place where one leaves the dust of the mind. 

As guests proceed slowly along the path, consisting or flat rocks, they pause on the larger rocks to contemplate the peaceful surroundings and enter into a spirit of meditation before entering the tea house through the low entrance. 

  9-1  One of the site authors conducting a tea ceremony at home

9-1 One of the site authors conducting a tea ceremony at home

  9-2  Yugao-tei Teahouse, Kenrokuen, Kanazawa

9-2 Yugao-tei Teahouse, Kenrokuen, Kanazawa

  9-3  eahouse at Kinkakuji in Kyoto

9-3 eahouse at Kinkakuji in Kyoto

  9-4  Interior of teahouse at Kinkakuji, Kyoto

9-4 Interior of teahouse at Kinkakuji, Kyoto

  9-5  Teahouse at Katsura Rikyu, Kyoto

9-5 Teahouse at Katsura Rikyu, Kyoto

  9-6  Entrance to Urakuen, a teahouse garden in Inuyama

9-6 Entrance to Urakuen, a teahouse garden in Inuyama

  9-7  Path leading to the Jo-an teahouse in Urakuen Garden

9-7 Path leading to the Jo-an teahouse in Urakuen Garden

  9-8  Well in Urakuen Garden

9-8 Well in Urakuen Garden

  9-9  Machiai in Urakuen Garden where guests wait until invited to the tea ceremony

9-9 Machiai in Urakuen Garden where guests wait until invited to the tea ceremony

  9-10  Jo-an teahouse in Urakuen Garden

9-10 Jo-an teahouse in Urakuen Garden

  9-11  Interior of Jo-an teahouse in Urakuen Garden

9-11 Interior of Jo-an teahouse in Urakuen Garden

  9-12  Area where the tea ceremony is conducted at Jo-an teahouse in Urakuen Garden

9-12 Area where the tea ceremony is conducted at Jo-an teahouse in Urakuen Garden

Edo Period Gardens

The Edo Period (1600-1868) is best known for large stroll gardens associated with castles and aristocratic villas. The goal of a stroll garden was to demonstrate the power and wealth of the owner, to provide a place to entertain important guests, and to afford a secure and private area for the owner to walk.

Stroll gardens used ponds, streams, waterfalls, bridges, artificial hills, shrubbery, lanterns, rocks and flowers to provide a constantly changing visual environment. Sometimes they contained teahouses and other subsidiary buildings. Sometimes the garden was planned in such a way that scenery beyond the walls of the garden was incorporated into the garden, a technique known as borrowed scenery (shake). This helped create the illusion that the garden was larger than it really is. Such gardens sometimes took generations to complete.

Unlike Zen gardens where one usually sits on a temple deck to contemplate the garden and meditate, or a tea garden where one strives to enter into a meditative state before participating in the tea ceremony, and Edo Period stroll garden was better suited to recreational purposes in a tranquil setting.

The three most important stroll gardens in Japan are Ritsurin Koen in Shikoku, Korakuen in Okayama, and Kenrokuen in Kanazawa. 

  10-1  Ritsurin Koen on Shikoku Island

10-1 Ritsurin Koen on Shikoku Island

  10-2  Ritsurin Koen, Shikoku

10-2 Ritsurin Koen, Shikoku

  10-3  Workers removing dead pine needles at Ritsurin Koen

10-3 Workers removing dead pine needles at Ritsurin Koen

  10-4  Suizenji Jojuen, Kumamoto, Kyushu

10-4 Suizenji Jojuen, Kumamoto, Kyushu

  10-5  Suizenji Jojuen, Kumamoto

10-5 Suizenji Jojuen, Kumamoto

  10-6  Korakuen Garden with castle in the background, Okayama City

10-6 Korakuen Garden with castle in the background, Okayama City

  10-7  Okayama Korakuen Garden

10-7 Okayama Korakuen Garden

  10-8  Kenrokuen, Kanazawa

10-8 Kenrokuen, Kanazawa

  10-9  Kenrokuen, Kanazawa

10-9 Kenrokuen, Kanazawa

  10-10  Shugakuin Garden, constructed by Emperor Gomizuno-o in Kyoto

10-10 Shugakuin Garden, constructed by Emperor Gomizuno-o in Kyoto

  10-11  Villa at Shugakuin, Kyoto

10-11 Villa at Shugakuin, Kyoto

  10-12  Katsura Rikyu garden, Kyoto

10-12 Katsura Rikyu garden, Kyoto

  10-13  Katsura Rikyu detached palace stroll garden, Kyoto

10-13 Katsura Rikyu detached palace stroll garden, Kyoto

Modern Gardens

Following the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Japan embarked upon an ambitious program of modernization and westernization that involved sending young people, usually from the recently abolished samurai class, all over the world to learn new techniques in areas such as banking, railroads, and the military. With this new knowledge came other cultural influences, including changes to garden architecture.

Some gardens incorporated large grassy areas, giving them a park-like or pastoral feeling. The traditional emphasis upon stylized elements such as shaped trees and highly formalized rock arrangements was replaced by an emphasis upon naturalism, including the introduction of more vegetation.

Following World War II, there was an explosion of new forms as Japanese gardens were constructed for government buildings, corporate headquarters, museums, restaurants, hotels and private homes. Some gardens were even constructed on the roofs of buildings, inside shopping malls, and in the interiors of private homes.

As in earlier periods, however, the primary goal of modern gardens continues to be the provision of a quiet, tranquil area where the individual can, for a time, escape the outside world and recover a sense of inner peace and composure.

  11-1  Murin-an, a Meiji Period garden, Kyoto

11-1 Murin-an, a Meiji Period garden, Kyoto

  11-2  Garden seen through one of the windows at the Adachi Museum

11-2 Garden seen through one of the windows at the Adachi Museum

  11-3  Detail from the Adachi Museum garden

11-3 Detail from the Adachi Museum garden

  11-4  Typical entrance garden of an urban residence

11-4 Typical entrance garden of an urban residence

  11-5  Pond garden of an urban residential dwelling

11-5 Pond garden of an urban residential dwelling

  11-6  Modern garden at the Kyoto International Exhibition Hall, utilizing Kiyomizu pottery made in Kyoto

11-6 Modern garden at the Kyoto International Exhibition Hall, utilizing Kiyomizu pottery made in Kyoto

  11-7  Kyoto International Community Center garden

11-7 Kyoto International Community Center garden

  11-8  Japanese garden at the Canadian embassy in Tokyo

11-8 Japanese garden at the Canadian embassy in Tokyo

Folk Arts and Crafts

Folk arts and crafts is one of those areas, rather rare in Japan, where spontaneous expression is allowed. One of the reasons for this is that the folk artist is often engaged in the mass production of articles for everyday use. The constant repetition of an activity such as producing and painting ceramic pots allows one to act without thinking because the necessary skills have been so deeply engrained.

Even when the article being made is not mass-produced, there is a certain amount of freedom involved because the item is unsigned and not designed to bring fame or fortune. As a result, folk art is less contrived and has a feeling of charm that is often lacking in the work of professional artists.

Folk arts and crafts also tend to be more colorful than their professional counterparts, which tend to be more influenced by high standards of taste.

  12-1  Individual painting wooden kokeshi dolls

12-1 Individual painting wooden kokeshi dolls

  12-2  Painted kokeshi dolls

12-2 Painted kokeshi dolls

  12-3  Humorous ceramic set made by a Japanese farmer in his spare time

12-3 Humorous ceramic set made by a Japanese farmer in his spare time

  12-4  Drunken samurai figures made by a Japanese farmer

12-4 Drunken samurai figures made by a Japanese farmer

  12-5  Potter at work on an electric wheel

12-5 Potter at work on an electric wheel

  12-6  Mass produced pot from the Edo Period

12-6 Mass produced pot from the Edo Period

  12-7  Miharu papier mache doll

12-7 Miharu papier mache doll

  12-8  Japanese papier mache toys

12-8 Japanese papier mache toys

  12-9  Edo Period Otsu-e painting made for sale to pilgrims on the Tokkaido road from Kyoto to Edo

12-9 Edo Period Otsu-e painting made for sale to pilgrims on the Tokkaido road from Kyoto to Edo

  12-10  Children's kite made in the Hirosaki area of northern Japan

12-10 Children's kite made in the Hirosaki area of northern Japan

Everyday Life and Fantasy

Everyday life has an "aesthetic rhythm" --the incessant movement by ordinary individuals back and forth between aesthetic restraint and aesthetic exuberance. Individuals leave the relative tranquility of their homes and venture out into a bustling urban environment with its noise, crowding, and bright advertisements to shop, commute to work, or engage in leisure time activities. At the end of the day, they return home to rest and recuperate.

This daily routine is punctuated throughout the year by festivals and rites of passage such as weddings, funerals and graduation ceremonies in which ordinary routine is temporarily suspended in favour of special events.

This aesthetic rhythm is not arbitrary or random but governed by cultural rules that affect aesthetic choices in all areas of life such as the decor of the surroundings in which activities occur, the objects used by individuals in everyday life, and in clothing. The photographs in this gallery illustrate a few of the cultural rules associated with clothing. A thorough discussion of such issues is presented in our book, Spontaneity in Japanese Art and Culture (see "About Us" and "Product") in the menu at the top of the page.

One of the basic cultural rules in regards to clothing is that whereas the clothing worn around the house, shopping, or for work should be simple and subdued in contrast and color, clothing worn for special occasions can be more bold and colorful.

The choice of clothing worn for special occasions is subject to additional rules concerning age and gender. For example, clothing worn by females can be more colorful than that worn by males. Within this gender distinction, there are further rules, especially in regards to kimono. Young girls can wear "gaudy" kimonos referred to as hade. As they get older, clothing becomes more sober and restrained.

For older women, the choice is between jimi (sober plainness) and shibui  (refined restraint with a touch of spontaneity). The difference is that jimi is tranquil and practical but rather dull, characterized by dark colors and lack of bold contrasts, whereas shibui,  although restrained, is less monotonous, with more variation in design and color. Shibui kimono are also more expensive as they are usually hand made rather than factory produced.

Fantasy in Japan is associated with public leisure time activities, such as pachinko, which is colourful, noisy, and stimulating. In similar fashion, creators of products designed to appeal to private fantasy make use of bright colors and bold contrasts to create a sense of excitement that transports one out of mundane reality to a world of the extraordinary. This is especially important in Japan where daily life is rather severely constrained by an abundance of rules that limit individual freedom in the promotion of group solidarity.

Sometimes the aesthetic choices of everyday life are pretentious or in bad taste, resulting in objects that can be defined as kitsch. Whereas some kitsch objects are regarded as strange by most people, some are simply humorous, serving to break up the solemnity of many aspects of everyday life.

CLOTHING
CLOTHING
  13-1  Clothing worn around the house, shopping, and work is restrained for both men and women.

13-1 Clothing worn around the house, shopping, and work is restrained for both men and women.

  13-2  Hade  (gaudy) kimono material is suitable for young girls.

13-2 Hade (gaudy) kimono material is suitable for young girls.

  13-3   Senren  kimono material is suitable for young women.

13-3 Senren kimono material is suitable for young women.

  13-4   Jimi  (sober plainness) kimono cloth is suitable for domestic wear or older women.

13-4 Jimi (sober plainness) kimono cloth is suitable for domestic wear or older women.

  13-5  Older women in  jimi  kimono

13-5 Older women in jimi kimono

  13-6   Shibui  (restrained spontaneity) material is suitable for older women who desire something less monotonous than  jimi .

13-6 Shibui (restrained spontaneity) material is suitable for older women who desire something less monotonous than jimi.

  13-7  Maiko on left and Geisha on right with the two authors. As apprentice geisha, maiko can wear more colorful clothing than a geisha.

13-7 Maiko on left and Geisha on right with the two authors. As apprentice geisha, maiko can wear more colorful clothing than a geisha.

  13-8  Colorful graduation ceremony clothing

13-8 Colorful graduation ceremony clothing

  13-9  Boy's formal kimono is relatively lacking in color.

13-9 Boy's formal kimono is relatively lacking in color.

  13-10  Girl's formal kimono is much more colorful than her male counterpart.

13-10 Girl's formal kimono is much more colorful than her male counterpart.

  13-11  Mother's kimono is plain compared to that of her young daughter.

13-11 Mother's kimono is plain compared to that of her young daughter.

  13-12  This photo exemplifies the rules for both gender and age. The father is dressed in a dark suit; the mother's formal kimono is less colorful than that of her young daughter.

13-12 This photo exemplifies the rules for both gender and age. The father is dressed in a dark suit; the mother's formal kimono is less colorful than that of her young daughter.

  FANTASY

FANTASY

  13-13  Comic book provide a private outlet for fantasy.

13-13 Comic book provide a private outlet for fantasy.

  13-14  Pachinko parlours provide a stimulating, noisy environment for those wishing to escape the monotony of everyday life.

13-14 Pachinko parlours provide a stimulating, noisy environment for those wishing to escape the monotony of everyday life.

  13-15  A love hotel with its garish colors

13-15 A love hotel with its garish colors

  13-16  A fantasymobile

13-16 A fantasymobile

  KITSCH

KITSCH

  13-17  Colonel Sanders dressed as a samurai

13-17 Colonel Sanders dressed as a samurai

  13-18  Religious statue (Jizo) equipped with helmet and gasoline can

13-18 Religious statue (Jizo) equipped with helmet and gasoline can

  13-19  Religious statue with clothing and make-up

13-19 Religious statue with clothing and make-up

Shibusa

The concept of shibusa refers to the highest level of beauty. Literally, shibusa means astringent or rough, as in the taste of an unripe persimmon. It also includes being quiet, sober, tasteful and refined. This seems to be a contradiction for how can something be rough and refined at the same time? But encompassing this contrast is exactly what the concept attempts to do.

Yanagi Soetsu, late director of the Museum of Folk Crafts in Tokyo, defined shibusa in terms of the seven attributed illustrated in the photographs on the left: simplicity, implicitness, modesty, tranquility, naturalness, roughness, and normalcy.

Refinement does not conflict with roughness because in this context it simply means being refined of all artificial and unnecessary ingredients —a natural, simple elegance. A good short definition that illustrates the “check and balance system” inherent in the concept has been provided by Jiro Harada, who says in A Glimpse of Japanese Ideals (1937), “it is that quality which is quiet and subdued. It is natural and has depth, but avoids being too apparent, or ostentatious. It is simple without being crude, austere without being severe. It is that refinement that gives spiritual joy.” A translation that we like is “restrained spontaneity.”

Understanding the concept of shibusa is important if one wishes to understand Japanese culture. Although there is much in Japanese culture that is colourful, unrestrained, and even garish, there is also a high level of taste that embraces an austere refinement in many areas of life such as one’s domestic surroundings. It is also related to concepts such as wabi and sabi, so important in the tea ceremony.

Japanese individuals are constrained by a great abundance of rules, partly because there are so many people living in such a small space. There is a strong desire on the part of many people to escape the constraints of daily life and find spontaneity in the leisure world or in fantasy. The concept of shibusa is unique in that it combines aesthetic restraint and exuberance in a single concept. If one lives in a shibui environment at home, the urge to escape comes less frequently because one’s surroundings are not boring. For example, even a small Japanese garden can transform a boring or ugly space into a place of beauty.

In brief, shibusa represents a compromise between the need for security and the need for novelty, between the need for tranquility and the need for spontaneity. As such it represents a major contribution of Japanese culture to the rest of the world.

  14-1   Simplicity : Simplicity is associated with qualities such as austere, unadorned, and plain, as in the clean straight lines of the interior of a Japanese room.

14-1 Simplicity: Simplicity is associated with qualities such as austere, unadorned, and plain, as in the clean straight lines of the interior of a Japanese room.

  14-2   Implicitness : Implicitness refers to the intrinsic meaningfulness something must have it is to avoid being superficial, as in the Zen garden of Ryoanji Temple in Kyoto.

14-2 Implicitness: Implicitness refers to the intrinsic meaningfulness something must have it is to avoid being superficial, as in the Zen garden of Ryoanji Temple in Kyoto.

  14-3   Modesty : The shibui article does not asserts its presence, as in the modest dish that enhances a flower arrangement rather than detracting from it.

14-3 Modesty: The shibui article does not asserts its presence, as in the modest dish that enhances a flower arrangement rather than detracting from it.

  14-4   Tranquility : Other words are serenity or calmness, feelings that are enhanced on the approach to a teahouse.

14-4 Tranquility: Other words are serenity or calmness, feelings that are enhanced on the approach to a teahouse.

  14-5   Naturalness : The colors and materials in this room of a Takayama businessman's house are all natural.

14-5 Naturalness: The colors and materials in this room of a Takayama businessman's house are all natural.

  14-6   Rougness : Because shibui objects are natural they often have irregular textures as in this mud wall in the city of Nara.

14-6 Rougness: Because shibui objects are natural they often have irregular textures as in this mud wall in the city of Nara.

  14-7   Normalcy : Shibui objects are far removed from sickness and abnormality; they must be strong and able to withstand daily use, as in this strong piece of woven cloth.

14-7 Normalcy: Shibui objects are far removed from sickness and abnormality; they must be strong and able to withstand daily use, as in this strong piece of woven cloth.

  14-8  Occasionally, all of the qualities described in these photographs come together in one object such as this Shino  sake  cup.

14-8 Occasionally, all of the qualities described in these photographs come together in one object such as this Shino sake cup.

Patterns

Interesting patterns are provided by a variety of objects in Japan such as buildings, walls, and gates. A few of our favorite patterns are shown in this gallery.

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Back to JAPANESE PHOTOGRAPHS
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Gallery 1 Temples
ise-in-trees.jpg
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Gallery 2 Shrines
Kinkakuji.jpg
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Gallery 3 Palaces
  4-1  Reconstructed Jomon Period (10,000-300 BCE) pit dwelling at Ikegami-sone-iseki
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Gallery 4 Dwellings and Inns
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Gallery 5 Castles and Castle Towns
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Gallery 6 Meiji and Modern Buildings
Kinkakuji.jpg
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Gallery 7 Nara and Heian Period Gardens
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Gallery 8 Zen Gardens
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Gallery 9 Tea Houses and Gardens
Kinkakuji.jpg
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Gallery 10 Edo Period Gardens
Kinkakuji.jpg
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Gallery 11 Modern Gardens
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Gallery 12 Folk Arts and Crafts
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Gallery 13 Everyday Life and Fantasy
  14-1   Simplicity : Simplicity is associated with qualities such as austere, unadorned, and plain, as in the clean straight lines of the interior of a Japanese room.
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Gallery 14 Shibusa
Kinkakuji.jpg
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Gallery 15 Patterns