Japanese Aesthetics

Buddhism came to Japan from Korea in the middle of the 6th century CE, bringing with it Continental civilization and a writing system. One of the first capitals, Heijo-kyo (present-day Nara), became the headquarters of the major Buddhist denominations of the time, most of which no longer exist apart from their Nara prototypes. These early temples were Chinese in style with vermillion-colored buildings, massive tiled roofs, and  tiled walls surrounding a highly symmetrical layout.

The Heian Period (794-1185) saw the capital moved from Heijo-kyo to Heian-kyo (present-day Kyoto). During this long period, new forms of Buddhism were introduced: the esoteric denominations (Tendai and Shingon) and various sects of Pure Land Buddhism.

Over time many newly-constructed temples adopted more traditional aesthetic values, abandoning a symmetrical layout, adopting natural, unpainted materials, and even moving from cities to the mountains.

Beginning in the Kamakura Period (1185-1333) a new form of Buddhism, Zen, was introduced from the Continent. Zen appealed to the warrior class of Japan because of its emphasis upon discipline of mind and body. Zen reached its aesthetic culmination during the Muromachi Period (1333-1573) in Kyoto.

Shinto shrines have a venerable history in Japan, dating back to prehistoric times. These pre-Buddhist shrines were constructed of natural materials (unpainted wood with roofs of thatch or bark) and set in natural surroundings. 

With the coming of Buddhism in the mid-sixth century, Shinto shrines began to change in the direction of Continental aesthetic values, introducing symmetrical layouts, tiled roofs, painted wood, and plastered, tiled walls.

Some shrines, however, notably those at Izumo (the oldest shrine) and Ise (the imperial shrines) have retained their original character, often being rebuilt at regular intervals over the centuries. 

Early palace architecture in Heijo-kyo (present-day Nara) and Heian-kyo (present-day Kyoto) followed the same basic pattern as early Chinese style Buddhist temples with monumental buildings that were brightly-painted, tiled, and set in large gravelled courtyards surrounded by roofed walls and impressive entrances. A good example of this early style is Heian Shrine in Kyoto, which is a two-thirds size reconstruction of the Great Hall of State (Daigokuden) of the Heian palace constructed on the original palace grounds in 1072.

Like Buddhist temples, many of which moved in the direction of indigenous aesthetic values over time, later palaces in Kyoto created living areas for the emperor, his consort, and children that were austere, unpainted buildings shingled with Cypress bark--in contrast to courtyard of the Hall of State, which retained its Chinese style. Living quarters were influenced by earlier Shinden mansions of the nobility that featured shingled buildings constructed around a pond and enclosed by a tiled wall. 

In addition to the imperial palace (Kyoto Gosho), there were more informal palaces belonging to members of the imperial family, such as the Edo Period Katsura Detached Palace in Kyoto, a traditional style complex set in a beautiful stroll garden.

In the Jomon Period (10,000-300 BCE), people lived in pit houses. In the following Yayoi Period (300 BCE-300 CE) new cultural influences arrived from Korea to introduce wet rice agriculture, which required storing grain in raised structures to protect them from water and rats.

In following periods, farmhouses adopted both practices. The kitchen and other work areas were situated on a packed dirt floor, whereas the living room and other peripheral rooms were constructed on a raised floor. The basic structure was post and beam with a large thatched roof. After the introduction of continental influence in the 6th century, thatch was often replaced with tiles.

There is a great deal of variation in farmhouses (minka) in Japan. Gassho style farmhouses have steep roofs suitable for areas with snow; magariya are L-shape houses of northeastern Japan that include a living space for the family as well as a stable for animals. Another northern style is the Kabutoyana (samurai helmet) roof that allows windows on the upper floors, an important consideration in the winter when windows on the ground floor are covered with snow.

On the southern island of Kyushu, U-shaped Kudo style houses were constructed "back to the wind" to withstand typhoons. There are many other basic shapes and roof ridge styles found in rural areas. 

In general, farmhouses were large enough to accommodate multiple generations --in some cases as much as thirty people or more. With their high ceilings and uninsulated walls, they were crafty and difficult to heat in the winter. Some farmhouses had an open hearth in the main living area, around which family members would sit for tea in the evenings. The interior space could be divided into smaller areas by sliding doors.

Urban merchant houses known as machiya were similar in construction with both a raised living area and a working area on a dirt floor. Machiya were long homes with narrow street frontage, usually containing one or more courtyard gardens. Two or three stories high, the front of the house served as retail space, with the back providing living space. 

In many cases, traditional houses, particularly in urban areas, consisted of rooms that look over a long deck that runs partway around the house. One steps from the tatami mats on the interior of the house to the wooden deck, and then down into the garden. The deck is separated from the garden by sliding doors: wood, glass, screen, and paper, that can be opened and closed depending upon the weather. Sometimes, a toilet is situated at one end of the deck and the bath is situated at the other end --keeping the two opposite bodily functions as far apart as possible. Important rooms have recessed alcoves (tokonoma) for displaying art objects.

Traditional inns are similar in structure, with a reception area, tatami mat guest rooms, bath and toilet areas, kitchen and a garden. Traditionally, meals are served in the guest rooms on low tables. After dinner, the table is moved to one side and bedding is removed from closets and laid out on the tatami mats. The bath usually consists of separate areas for males and females and may have only small wood or ceramic tubs where one soaks after washing thoroughly outside the tub. The hot water in some inns is supplied by natural hot springs, in which case the bathing area may consist of both large indoor and outdoor pools. 

Traditional homes and inns have a foyer (genkan) where shoes are left before stepping up onto the tatami mat area. There are separate slippers for wooden decks, toilets, bath, and garden.

Today, traditional domestic architecture is often replaced with Western style wood frame structures with insulated walls. Such buildings are less costly to build and easier to heat. Unlike traditional houses that had very little furniture, modern Western style homes employ Western style furniture such as tables, chairs, and beds.

Castles

Japanese castles are interesting from an architectural point of view. They are also important symbols because they are associated with internal warfare, which has been typical of much of Japanese history.

The earliest fortifications in Japan were probably constructed in the Yayoi Period (300 BCE-300 CE). In the Early Tomb Mound Period (300-552 CE) earth and wooden fortresses of a more enduring nature were built throughout Japan by the Yamato Clan to defend against native groups such as the Emishi and Ainu.

Beginning in the Heian Period (794-1185) attention shifted from defines of the Nation from indigenous and foreign invaders to include the necessity for clans to defend their territories against each other. Heian Period fortifications consisted of mountain stockades made of wood, as well as samurai houses surrounded by a moat and palisades.

Clan warfare increased during the Period of Decentralized Feudalism, resulting in the proliferation of clan castles. Most of these castles from the early period of Decentralized Feudalism were located on mountains or hills and were rather primitive and impermanent, providing temporary refuge in time of war. Warlords normally lived in a fortified home in a more convenient location. Over the course of the Period of Decentralized Feudalism early mountain-top castles developed into permanent residences with elaborate exteriors and luxurious interiors.

The Momoyama Period (1573-1600) when Japan was unified under three great successive military leaders (Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Oda Nobunaga, and Ieyasu Tokugawa), saw a new style of castle that relied upon manmade defences rather than a remote mountain environment. There were two types: (1) flatland castles often led to the growth of castle towns that served as administrative censers; (2) flatland-mountain castles were built on a hill in the center of the lord’s domain.

During the following Edo Period (1600-1868), when Japan was unified under a Shogun and relative peaceful, the Shogun limited each clan to one castle. Thus many castles had to be destroyed. The Meiji Period (1868-1912), when Japan forcefully pursued westernization, saw the destruction of many castles, which were viewed as remnants of feudal society. More were lost to neglect and World War II. Today, only twelve original castles survive, though others have been reconstructed.

Castle Towns

A good example of a castle town is Kanezawa, an administrative, commercial and cultural center during the feudal period. Situated on the Japan Sea side, Kanazawa was the castle town of the Maeda clan and Japan's fourth largest city in the Edo Period. Fortunately, Kanazawa was spared from bombing during World War II. In addition to castle remains, the city has several main areas of historical interest: the old samurai area, the geisha district, the temple district, and one of Japan's three most important gardens, Kenrokuen.

The Meiji Restoration of 1868 returned the Emperor to power, abolished feudalism, and opened Japan to Western trade and cultural influences, including architecture. New styles, techniques and materials were adopted from the West, resulting in an interesting blend of Western and Japanese features. For example, some buildings, such as residences, inns, shops and neighbourhood shrines, remained traditional in basic structure but adopted synthetic siding and asphalt shingles. Other buildings, such as stores and restaurants, remained traditional in appearance but adopted Western structural elements such as 2x4 framing instead of customary post and beam.

In the early Meiji Period many government buildings private businesses, and factories were constructed from stone and brick. Because Japanese lacked experience with these materials, such buildings were usually designed and built by foreign architects. Eventually Japanese carpenters experimented on their own, combining Western designs with traditional elements, resulting in eclectic buildings with a certain amount of charm.

In the early 1880s there was a reaction against rapid Westernization and a growing nationalism that saw a return to the use of massive tiled roofs and Japanese decorative motifs being added to Western style facades.

Although many Meiji buildings have been lost to fire, earthquake, and war, a number of remaining structures have been moved to Meiji Mura, near Nagoya, a large open air museum where some of the best of Meiji architecture can be seen.

Today, Japan has a complex mix of poor quality post-war buildings, traditional architecture, and modern buildings, especially in cities such as Tokyo, that are among the most futuristic in the world. Though there was long a ban on building tall buildings because of the danger of earthquakes, new techniques have allowed buildings to climb higher and higher --a trend encouraged by the high price of land in urban areas.

The earliest gardens in Japan were simple pebbled plots on the beach or in the forest, created for honouring spirits known as kami. These pebbled areas were later used to indicate sacred space associated with Shinto shrines and ceremonial space in front of chiefs’ houses.

From the sixth through the eighth centuries CE, new influences arrived from the Continent, bringing, among many other things, writing and Buddhism, as well as two major garden traditions: (1) a Monumental Graveled Courtyard Tradition associated with imperial palaces and Buddhist temples and (2) a Villa Pond-Garden Tradition associated with aristocratic mansions. Both of these traditions were introduced to the area that developed the first major capital, Heijokyo now known as Nara. The Nara Period lasted from 710-794.

Despite their continental origins, the graveled courtyards of the imperial palace and the major temples of Nara are reminiscent of the graveled courtyards associated with prehistoric shrines and chiefs’ houses. The second continental garden tradition were aristocratic shinden villas set in an extensive garden organized around a pond.

In 710 the capital was moved from Heijokyo (Nara) to Heiankyo (Kyoto), which remained the capital for around a thousand years. Continental influences persisted from the Nara Period, with the continuation of graveled courtyards around the palace and major Buddhist temples. Despite the persistence of these continental influences there was a tendency, after Kyoto became the capital, to modify Chinese influences in accordance with indigenous standards of taste. For example, there was a tendency to blend the Monumental Graveled Courtyard Tradition and the Villa Pond-Garden Tradition.

This tendency was perhaps most marked in the temples of the esoteric denominations that came to Japan during the Heian Period: Shingon and Tendai. The most important surviving example of a Shingon temple and garden is Byodoin Temple at Uji, on the outskirts of Kyoto. Here, the temple was separated from a large lotus pond by a graveled area. In the middle of the pond was an island where religious ceremonies were conducted. Members of the Fujiwara family, regents to the Emperor in Kyoto, would sit on the other side of the pond gazing at the beautiful temple and imagining their rebirth in the Western Paradise. Such gardens were called Paradise Gardens.

Many Shingon and Tendai temples departed from the continental tradition of great Chinese-style urban complexes with tiled, painted buildings in a graveled courtyard and moved to the mountains, where buildings were arranged asymmetrically and were surrounded by more informal gardens. A good example is Sanzen-in, a Tendai temple at Otsu, near Kyoto.

In the Muromachi Period (1333-1573), a new school of Buddhism from China, Zen, continued the process, begun by the esoteric and Pure Land denominations in the Heian Period, of modifying existing villa compounds into temples with pond gardens, to which they added new froms of sacred graveled space.

A good example of an early Zen garden in Japan is that of Tenryuji in Kyoto, where a pond-style garden with rock formations representing the search for enlightenment were constructed adjacent to the temple. The Tenryuji garden was transitional between earlier pond gardens of the Heian Period and later karesansui (dry landscape) gardens, such as that of Ryoanji, perhaps the most famous Zen meditation-style garden in the world. Other Zen temples with karesansui gardens are Tofukuji and Ryogenin temples in Kyoto.

In karesansui gardens, rocks and gravel, sometimes supplemented with moss and other forms of vegetation, are used to suggest water and mountains in an attempt to translate bland ink landscape paintings into three-dimensional forms on a small scale.

A typical Zen idea is that the universe can be found in a grain of sand. Accordingly, karesansui gardens strive to convey the deeper meaning of life by reducingmaterials used to stones, gravel, and occasional vegetation. The stones stand for the eternal framework of the universe, and the gravel and vegetation symbolize the transience of the phenomenal world.

Tea drinking began in the Nara Period (710-794) when tea was imported from China to be used as a medicine. In the following Heian Period (794-1185), tea was incorporated into Buddhist ceremonies and tea drinking was popular at the court. 

In the Kamakura Period (1185-1333) the nobility indulged in tea games which involved trying to guess where the tea was grown. In the following Muromachi Period (1333-1573) tea games were reorganized into a public ceremony dominated by strict rules of etiquette. Eventually, tea drinking developed into a kind of religious ceremony in which elegant Chinese ware was replaced by simple Korean bowls and the tea room was made smaller, with a low doorway so that everyone, regardless of stature, had to stoop to enter.

A tea ceremony can be conducted in a special room in a private home, palace temple or castle; or it can be conducted in a building constructed especially for that purpose.

The most famous tea master was Sen-no-Rikyu (1521-1591) who favoured austerity, manifested in a simple building situated in a tranquil garden setting. When asked about the secret of the tea ceremony, Rikyu replied, "making it so it feels cooler in summer and warmer in winter, arranging charcoal so water boils easily and tea tastes good."

Aesthetic concepts associated with the tea ceremony include sabi (the patina that comes with age), wabi (things that are simple, natural and imperfect) and shibusa (refined restraint).

Sen-no-Rikyu was the personal tea master of the great military leader Hideyoshi, with whom he disagreed on many issues --especially Hideyoshi's obsession with ostentatiousness. Eventually, Rikyu was accused of plotting to poison his master in a tea ceremony and was ordered to commit ritual suicide. Rikyu's influence, however, continues to live on and to influence contemporary tea ceremony, tea houses, and tea gardens.

If there is a separate building for the tea ceremony, it is situated in a garden (roji) that is divided into two parts. The outer roji consists of the gate, a covered seat where guests wait to be invited to the teahouse,  and a privy. When the invitation comes, guests enter another gate into the inner roji, where they wash hands and mouth at a water basin. There is also a well and small dust pit symbolizing the place where one leaves the dust of the mind. 

As guests proceed slowly along the path, consisting or flat rocks, they pause on the larger rocks to contemplate the peaceful surroundings and enter into a spirit of meditation before entering the tea house through the low entrance. 

The Edo Period (1600-1868) is best known for large stroll gardens associated with castles and aristocratic villas. The goal of a stroll garden was to demonstrate the power and wealth of the owner, to provide a place to entertain important guests, and to afford a secure and private area for the owner to walk.

Stroll gardens used ponds, streams, waterfalls, bridges, artificial hills, shrubbery, lanterns, rocks and flowers to provide a constantly changing visual environment. Sometimes they contained teahouses and other subsidiary buildings. Sometimes the garden was planned in such a way that scenery beyond the walls of the garden was incorporated into the garden, a technique known as borrowed scenery (shake). This helped create the illusion that the garden was larger than it really is. Such gardens sometimes took generations to complete.

Unlike Zen gardens where one usually sits on a temple deck to contemplate the garden and meditate, or a tea garden where one strives to enter into a meditative state before participating in the tea ceremony, and Edo Period stroll garden was better suited to recreational purposes in a tranquil setting.

The three most important stroll gardens in Japan are Ritsurin Koen in Shikoku, Korakuen in Okayama, and Kenrokuen in Kanazawa. 

Following the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Japan embarked upon an ambitious program of modernization and westernization that involved sending young people, usually from the recently abolished samurai class, all over the world to learn new techniques in areas such as banking, railroads, and the military. With this new knowledge came other cultural influences, including changes to garden architecture.

Some gardens incorporated large grassy areas, giving them a park-like or pastoral feeling. The traditional emphasis upon stylized elements such as shaped trees and highly formalized rock arrangements was replaced by an emphasis upon naturalism, including the introduction of more vegetation.

Following World War II, there was an explosion of new forms as Japanese gardens were constructed for government buildings, corporate headquarters, museums, restaurants, hotels and private homes. Some gardens were even constructed on the roofs of buildings, inside shopping malls, and in the interiors of private homes.

As in earlier periods, however, the primary goal of modern gardens continues to be the provision of a quiet, tranquil area where the individual can, for a time, escape the outside world and recover a sense of inner peace and composure.

Folk arts and crafts is one of those areas, rather rare in Japan, where spontaneous expression is allowed. One of the reasons for this is that the folk artist is often engaged in the mass production of articles for everyday use. The constant repetition of an activity such as producing and painting ceramic pots allows one to act without thinking because the necessary skills have been so deeply engrained.

Even when the article being made is not mass-produced, there is a certain amount of freedom involved because the item is unsigned and not designed to bring fame or fortune. As a result, folk art is less contrived and has a feeling of charm that is often lacking in the work of professional artists.

Folk arts and crafts also tend to be more colorful than their professional counterparts, which tend to be more influenced by high standards of taste.

Everyday life has an "aesthetic rhythm" --the incessant movement by ordinary individuals back and forth between aesthetic restraint and aesthetic exuberance. Individuals leave the relative tranquility of their homes and venture out into a bustling urban environment with its noise, crowding, and bright advertisements to shop, commute to work, or engage in leisure time activities. At the end of the day, they return home to rest and recuperate.

This daily routine is punctuated throughout the year by festivals and rites of passage such as weddings, funerals and graduation ceremonies in which ordinary routine is temporarily suspended in favour of special events.

This aesthetic rhythm is not arbitrary or random but governed by cultural rules that affect aesthetic choices in all areas of life such as the decor of the surroundings in which activities occur, the objects used by individuals in everyday life, and in clothing. The photographs in this gallery illustrate a few of the cultural rules associated with clothing. A thorough discussion of such issues is presented in our book, Spontaneity in Japanese Art and Culture (see "About Us" and "Product") in the menu at the top of the page.

One of the basic cultural rules in regards to clothing is that whereas the clothing worn around the house, shopping, or for work should be simple and subdued in contrast and color, clothing worn for special occasions can be more bold and colorful.

The choice of clothing worn for special occasions is subject to additional rules concerning age and gender. For example, clothing worn by females can be more colorful than that worn by males. Within this gender distinction, there are further rules, especially in regards to kimono. Young girls can wear "gaudy" kimonos referred to as hade. As they get older, clothing becomes more sober and restrained.

For older women, the choice is between jimi (sober plainness) and shibui  (refined restraint with a touch of spontaneity). The difference is that jimi is tranquil and practical but rather dull, characterized by dark colors and lack of bold contrasts, whereas shibui,  although restrained, is less monotonous, with more variation in design and color. Shibui kimono are also more expensive as they are usually hand made rather than factory produced.

Fantasy in Japan is associated with public leisure time activities, such as pachinko, which is colourful, noisy, and stimulating. In similar fashion, creators of products designed to appeal to private fantasy make use of bright colors and bold contrasts to create a sense of excitement that transports one out of mundane reality to a world of the extraordinary. This is especially important in Japan where daily life is rather severely constrained by an abundance of rules that limit individual freedom in the promotion of group solidarity.

Sometimes the aesthetic choices of everyday life are pretentious or in bad taste, resulting in objects that can be defined as kitsch. Whereas some kitsch objects are regarded as strange by most people, some are simply humorous, serving to break up the solemnity of many aspects of everyday life.

The concept of shibusa refers to the highest level of beauty. Literally, shibusa means astringent or rough, as in the taste of an unripe persimmon. It also includes being quiet, sober, tasteful and refined. This seems to be a contradiction for how can something be rough and refined at the same time? But encompassing this contrast is exactly what the concept attempts to do.

Yanagi Soetsu, late director of the Museum of Folk Crafts in Tokyo, defined shibusa in terms of the seven attributed illustrated in the photographs on the left: simplicity, implicitness, modesty, tranquility, naturalness, roughness, and normalcy.

Refinement does not conflict with roughness because in this context it simply means being refined of all artificial and unnecessary ingredients —a natural, simple elegance. A good short definition that illustrates the “check and balance system” inherent in the concept has been provided by Jiro Harada, who says in A Glimpse of Japanese Ideals (1937), “it is that quality which is quiet and subdued. It is natural and has depth, but avoids being too apparent, or ostentatious. It is simple without being crude, austere without being severe. It is that refinement that gives spiritual joy.” A translation that we like is “restrained spontaneity.”

Understanding the concept of shibusa is important if one wishes to understand Japanese culture. Although there is much in Japanese culture that is colourful, unrestrained, and even garish, there is also a high level of taste that embraces an austere refinement in many areas of life such as one’s domestic surroundings. It is also related to concepts such as wabi and sabi, so important in the tea ceremony.

Japanese individuals are constrained by a great abundance of rules, partly because there are so many people living in such a small space. There is a strong desire on the part of many people to escape the constraints of daily life and find spontaneity in the leisure world or in fantasy. The concept of shibusa is unique in that it combines aesthetic restraint and exuberance in a single concept. If one lives in a shibui environment at home, the urge to escape comes less frequently because one’s surroundings are not boring. For example, even a small Japanese garden can transform a boring or ugly space into a place of beauty.

In brief, shibusa represents a compromise between the need for security and the need for novelty, between the need for tranquility and the need for spontaneity. As such it represents a major contribution of Japanese culture to the rest of the world.

Interesting patterns are provided by a variety of objects in Japan such as buildings, walls, and gates. A few of our favorite patterns are shown in this gallery.